Denver Public Schools

Content Standards

Standards for Success

Reading and Writing Standards Internet Links

Introduction

The ability to communicate clearlyto read, write, speak, and listenforms the core of human culture. Reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills are essential tools for learning, for success in the workplace, for enriching and expanding our lives, and for responsible citizenship.

Language skills are particularly critical in the area of education. Through language abilities, students understand the academic content areas. Success in learning depends on students acquiring solid knowledge and skills in reading, writing, speaking, and listening. As with the Colorado Model Content Standards, the proposed Denver Public Schools standards set high expectations in these areas for all students.

Reading and writing have the power to bridge time and place. We remain in contact with people who lived before us through literature and other written records of human experience. We reach toward our future by knowing how to locate, read, comprehend, and make use of an ever-increasing amount of information.

These standards express what each student in Denver should know and be able to do in order to

· become fluent readers, writers, and speakers;

· communicate effectively, concisely, coherently, and imaginatively;

· recognize the power of language and use that power ethically and creatively; and

· communicate with ease in an increasingly technological world.

Educators, parents, and communities can now focus their attention and energy on creating the conditions under which all students can meet these expectations. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the education community to intervene at the earliest point in the student's formal educational experience where, through careful observation, it becomes apparent that a student is not progressing in a manner that will lead to the meeting of these standards.

These standards will lead to the development of literate students who are proficient in reading, writing, listening, speaking, creativity, problem solving, and researching skills. Achievement of these standards gives students the ability to make meaningful connections between life and educational experiences and enables them to enjoy personal success. Given the importance of developing literate students, the reading and writing standards cannot be accomplished in isolation. Literacy skills must be developed in all content areas. Standards that incorporate the academic rigor in these reading and writing standards will help students achieve standards for all content areas and perform at expected levels of proficiency.

Developing Literacy

The primary goal of the Denver Public Schools is to develop literate students. Students in the Denver Public Schools will learn to read and will be prepared to participate in society as literate citizens, equipped with the ability to communicate effectively in their communities, in the workplace, and in postsecondary education. These reading and writing standards set forth clear expectations for student achievement in the areas of reading and writing and are supported by the district Elementary and Secondary Literacy Plans. The literacy plans provide a framework which will support the development of literate students. The literacy plans include these strategies:

· providing effective reading instruction for all students;

· providing professional development which includes content and process strategies to implement effective, necessary reading and writing instruction for all students;

· supporting schools in acquiring appropriate and quality materials for all students;

· monitoring the use of appropriate assessments that measure student achievement in reading and writing; and

· monitoring the implementation of content standards for reading and writing instruction.

Reading and Writing Content Standards

1. Students read and understand a variety of materials.

2. Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences.

3. Students write and speak using formal grammar, usage, sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.

4. Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing.

5. Students read to locate, select, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources.

6. Students read and recognize literature as a record of human experience.

7. Students use appropriate technologies to extend comprehension and communication skills in reading, writing, speaking, listening and viewing.

Note: A reference list of sources of book lists can be found at the end of the Reading and Writing Standards. None of these book lists has been endorsed by the Colorado State Board of Education.

STANDARD 1: Students read and understand a variety of materials.

In order to meet this standard, students will

1.1 use comprehension strategies such as using prior knowledge; previewing; predicting; inferring; comparing and contrasting; rereading and self-monitoring; summarizing; identifying the author's purpose, i.e., reason for writing; determining the main idea; and applying knowledge of foreshadowing, metaphor, simile, symbolism, and other identified figures of speech;

1.2 make connections between prior knowledge and what they need to know about a topic before reading about it;

1.3 adjust reading strategies for a variety of purposes such as reading carefully, skimming and scanning, fitting materials into an organizational pattern, reading a variety of literature chronologically, finding information to support particular ideas, and finding the sequence of steps in publications including textbooks and technical articles;

1.4 use word recognition skills, strategies, and resources such as phonics, context clues, picture clues, word origins, and word order clues; reference guides; roots, prefixes, and suffixes of words for comprehension; and

1.5 use information from their reading to increase vocabulary and language usage.

Rationale. The goal for students at all levels is that they know and can use strategies-various ways of unlocking the meaning of words and larger blocks of text-to become successful life-long readers. The strategies are applied in increasingly difficult reading material at each grade level. At all levels, students should be challenged to read literature and other materials that stimulate their interests and intellectual abilities. Reading from a wide variety of texts, both assigned and student selected, provides experience in gaining information and pleasure from diverse forms and perspectives.

GRADES K-4

In grades K-4, what the students know and are able to do includes

· using a full range of strategies to comprehend materials such as directions, nonfiction material, poetry, plays, and stories.

GRADES 5-8

As students in grades 5-8 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· using a full range of strategies to comprehend technical writing, newspapers, magazines, poetry, short stories, plays, and novels in addition to the types of reading material mentioned in the K-4 benchmarks. Students extend their thinking and understanding as they read stories about people from diverse backgrounds.

GRADES 9-12

As students in grades 9-12 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· using a full range of strategies to comprehend essays, speeches, biographies, autobiographies, and first person historical documents in addition to the types of literature mentioned in previous grade level benchmarks.

Back To Reading and Writing Standards List

STANDARD 2: Students write and speak for a variety of purposes and audiences.

In order to meet this standard, students will

2.1 expand vocabulary development using a variety of methods such as synonyms, antonyms, metaphors, similes;

2.2 write and speak for a variety of purposes such as telling stories, presenting analytical responses to literature, conveying technical information, explaining concepts and procedures, and persuading;

2.3 write and speak to peers, teachers, and the community;

2.4 plan, draft, revise, proofread, edit, and publish written communications;

2.5 use a variety of literary devices such as figurative language, symbolism, dialect, and precise vocabulary to convey meaning;

2.6 prepare written and oral presentations using strategies such as lists, outlining, cause/effect relationships, comparison/contrast, problem/solution, and narration; and

2.7 use the most appropriate method, handwriting or word processing, to produce a product that is legible.

Rationale. Writing and speaking are essential tools for learning, for success in the workplace, and for responsible citizenship. Developing a range of writing and speaking abilities requires extensive study, practice, and thinking. Students need frequent opportunities to write and speak for different audiences and purposes, and they need to be able to communicate creatively, expressively, informatively, and analytically. Growth in writing and speaking abilities occurs by applying skills to increasingly challenging communication tasks.

GRADES K-4

In grades K-4, what students know and are able to do includes

· generating topics and developing ideas for a variety of writing and speaking purposes (for example, telling a sequential story, publishing a class newsletter, writing a letter to an adult, writing or orally presenting a book report, creating and producing a play, introducing a speaker or an event, narrating a presentation, researching, writing, and presenting a report);

· organizing their speaking and writing;

· choosing vocabulary that communicates their messages clearly and precisely;

· revising and editing speech and writing;

· editing the written work of others; and

· creating readable documents with legible handwriting or word processing as developmentally appropriate.

GRADES 5-8

As students in grades 5-8 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· telling and writing stories, reports, and letters with greater detail and supporting material;

· choosing vocabulary and figures of speech that communicate clearly in writing and speaking;

· drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading for a legible final copy;

· critiquing and editing the written work of others;

· applying skills in explanation, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation in their writing and speaking;

· incorporating source materials into their speaking and writing (for example, interviews, news articles, encyclopedia information);

· writing and speaking in the content areas, using the technical vocabulary of the subject accurately; and

· recognizing and using stylistic elements such as voice, tone, and style in reading, writing, and speaking.

GRADES 9-12

As students in grades 9-12 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· creating and presenting complex written and spoken works;

· using fictional, dramatic, and poetic techniques in writing;

· conveying technical information in a written and spoken form appropriate to the audience;

· supporting an opinion using various forms of persuasion (factual or emotional) in speaking and writing;

· incorporating material from a wider range of sources (for example, newspapers, magazines, interviews, technical publications, books) in their writing and speaking;

· selecting a focused topic and drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading a legible final copy;

· writing and speaking for various audiences in specialized fields such as career and academic interest areas (for example, scientific, technical, business, and electronic communication video); and

· experimenting with stylistic elements such as voice, tone, style, and audience in writing.

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STANDARD 3: Students write and speak using formal grammar, usage, sentence structure, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.

In order to meet this standard, students will

3.1 recognize, understand, and use formal grammar in speaking and writing;

3.2 apply formal usage in speaking and writing;

3.3 use correct sentence structure in writing;

3.4 demonstrate correct punctuation, capitalization, and spelling; and

3.5 recognize and know when it is appropriate to use dialectical, idiomatic, and colloquial language, including awareness and appreciation of cultural and dialectic variance.

Rationale. Recognition, understanding, and use of formal English is essential to effective communication. Students recognize, understand, and use formal English. Proficiency in this standard plays an important role in how the writer or speaker is understood and perceived. All skills in this standard are reinforced and practiced at all grade levels and should be monitored by the teacher, student, and parents to develop lifelong learning skills.

GRADES K-4

In grades K-4, what the students know and are able to do includes

· recognizing, understanding, and using subject-verb agreement;

· recognizing, understanding, and using correct modifiers;

· recognizing, understanding, and using correct capitalization, punctuation, and abbreviations;

· spelling frequently used words correctly using phonics rules and exceptions; and

· using spoken and written language situationally.

GRADES 5-8

As students in grades 5-8 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· identifying and using correctly the parts of speech such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections;

· using correct pronoun case, regular and irregular noun and verb forms, and subject-verb agreement in writing and speaking;

· recognizing and manipulating parts of a sentence;

· using modifiers, homonyms, and homophones in writing and speaking;

· using simple, compound, complex, and compound/complex sentences in writing and speaking;

· punctuating and capitalizing titles and direct quotations, using possessives, and formal paragraphing in writing;

· using prefixes, root words, and suffixes correctly in writing and speaking;

· expanding spelling skills to include a variety of complex words;

· demonstrating use of conventional spelling in their published works;

· using resources such as spell checkers, dictionaries, and charts to monitor their spelling accuracy; and

· recognizing the appropriate use of colloquial language in daily conversation.

GRADES 9-12

As students in grades 9-12 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· using pronoun reference correctly in writing and speaking;

· using phrases and clauses for purposes of modification and parallel structure in writing and speaking;

· using internal capitalization and punctuation of secondary quotations in writing;

· using manuscript forms specified in various style manuals for writing (for example, indenting for extended quotations, precise placement and form, page numbers, appropriate line spacing);

· refining spelling, grammatical skills, and syntax, and becoming self-evaluators of their writing and speaking;

· applying formal verb tense; and

· refining the use of increasingly complex sentence patterns.

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STANDARD 4: Students apply thinking skills to their reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing.

In order to meet this standard, students will

4.1 make predictions, analyze, draw conclusions, and discriminate between fact and opinion in reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing;

4.2 use reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing to gather data, define the problem, and apply problem-solving skills;

4.3 recognize, express, and defend points of view orally and in writing;

4.4 identify the purpose, perspective, and historical and cultural influences of a speaker, author, or director; and

4.5 evaluate the reliability, accuracy, and relevancy of information.

Rationale. Students use reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing to think and learn. By moving beyond a literal interpretation of text to an analysis of an author's, playwright's, speaker's, or director's purpose and perspectives, students practice and improve their higher-level thinking skills. Students need to recognize and evaluate different points of view and to follow a line of reasoning to its logical conclusion. Students need to evaluate their writing and reading skills and work toward improvement.

GRADES K-4

In grades K-4, what students know and are able to do includes

· recognizing an author's/playwright's point of view;

· predicting and drawing conclusions about stories and plays;

· differentiating between fact and opinion in written and spoken forms;

· using reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing to gather data, define the problem, and apply problem-solving skills;

· responding to written and oral presentations as a reader, listener, actor, and articulate speaker;

· formulating questions about what they read, write, hear, and view; and

· using listening, reading, speaking, writing, and viewing skills to understand directions.

GRADES 5-8

As students in grades 5-8 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· recognizing an author's, playwright's or speaker's point of view and purpose, separating fact from opinion;

· using reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing skills to solve problems and answer questions;

· making predictions, drawing conclusions, and analyzing what they read, hear, and view;

· recognizing, expressing, and defending a point of view, in both writing and speaking in an articulate manner; and

· determining literary quality based on elements such as the author's/playwright's use of vocabulary, character development, plot development, description of setting, and realism of dialogue.

GRADES 9-12

As students in grades 9-12 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· recognizing an author's/playwright's point of view, purpose, and historical and cultural context;

· using reading, writing, listening, articulate speaking, and viewing to solve problems and discern meaning;

· critiquing the content of written, oral, and visual presentations; and

· applying principles of formal logic to written and oral texts.

Back To Reading and Writing Standards List

STANDARD 5: Students read to locate, select, evaluate, and make use of relevant information from a variety of media, reference, and technological sources.

In order to meet this standard, students will

5.1 select relevant material for reading, writing, and speaking purposes;

5.2 understand the structure, organization, and use of various media, reference, and technological sources as they select information for their reading, writing, and speaking purposes;

5.3 paraphrase, summarize, organize, evaluate, and synthesize information;

5.4 cite others' ideas, images, or information from primary, print, and electronic resources; and

5.5 use information to produce a quality product in an appropriate format.

Rationale. In this age of information and technology, people need reading and information-retrieval skills that will enable them to access facts, images, and text from many sources. The sheer volume of data makes it necessary for information seekers to be able to navigate through a maze of facts, figures, and images, and to identify what is useful and relevant.

Knowing how to locate, evaluate, and make use of an ever-increasing amount of information demands a broader repertoire of reading strategies. This implies an expanded definition of literacy that includes reading for information in a technological age. Students need to become discerning consumers of information in the workplace as well as in civic life.

GRADES K-4

In grades K-4, what students know and are able to do includes

· using organizational features of printed text (for example, page numbering, alphabetizing, glossaries, chapter headings, tables of contents, indexes, captions);

· recognizing and using organizational features of electronic information;

· gathering and recording, organizing, and identifying main ideas or key concepts in resource materials;

· sorting information as it relates to a specific topic or purpose;

· collecting, storing, organizing, and retrieving electronic data; and

· citing information utilized by telling or listing sources.

GRADES 5-8

As students in grades 5-8 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· using organizational features of printed text such as prefaces, afterwords, and appendices;

· using organizational features of electronic information and library catalog databases;

· locating, evaluating, and selecting relevant information to be used in writing and speaking;

· refining skills in collecting, storing, organizing, and retrieving electronic data;

· using available technology to research and produce an end-product that is accurately documented; and

· citing information utilized in a recognized bibliographic format.

GRADES 9-12

As students in grades 9-12 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· using organizational features of printed text such as citations, end notes, and bibliographic references to locate relevant information;

· evaluating information in light of what they know and their specific needs;

· using organizational features of electronic text to locate information with available technology;

· using strategies to gain information from journals, research studies, and technical documents;

· giving precise, formal credit for others' ideas, images, or information in a standard reference format;

· producing a carefully documented product using available technology to access information and conduct research;

· locating information appropriate for their reading and writing purposes such as career and academic interest, leisure time, and self-improvement; and

· synthesizing information from a variety of sources to demonstrate understanding of a subject.

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STANDARD 6: Students read and recognize literature as a record of human experience.

In order to meet this standard, students will

6.1 know and use literary terminology;

6.2 read literature to investigate common issues and interests in relation to self and others;

6.3 read literature to understand places, people, events, and vocabulary, both familiar and unfamiliar;

6.4 read literature that reflects the uniqueness, diversity, and integrity of the American experience;

6.5 read classic and contemporary literature of the United States about the experiences and traditions of diverse ethnic groups; and

6.6 read classic and contemporary literature, representing various cultural and ethnic traditions from throughout the world.

Rationale. Literature records human expression in such forms as speeches, poems, novels, stories, nonfiction, essays, plays, films, biographies, and autobiographies by male and female speakers and writers. The study of literary traditions offers a perspective on enduring questions, a glimpse into human motives and conflicts, and a sense of the beauty and power of spoken and written language. In addition, literature transmits and transforms culture; it also enables students to think, communicate, and participate in society. The study of literature and writers of the United States honors the heritage and cultures of all people who live or have lived in this country, and helps students develop an understanding of the national experience. The study of classic and contemporary literature from throughout the world broadens students' perspectives of the human experience. A comprehensive literature program fosters habits of reading that carry over into adult life.

GRADES K-4

In grades K-4, what students know and are able to do includes

· reading, viewing, listening, responding to, and discussing a variety of literature such as fables, folk tales, legends, myths, rhymes and poems, fiction, nonfiction, and content area reading;

· reading, responding to, and discussing literature and the fine arts as a way to explore the similarities and differences among stories and the ways in which those stories reflect the ethnic background of the authors, poets, playwrights, and artists, and the culture in which they were written;

· recognizing the concept of classic or enduring literature, and reading and listening to classic works;

· using literary terminology such as setting, plot, character, problem/solution, and point of view;

· using new vocabulary from literature in other contexts; and

· developing skills to beome an effective audience member or performer.

GRADES 5-8

As students in grades 5-8 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· reading, viewing, listening, responding to, and discussing a variety of novels, poetry, plays short stories, nonfiction, content area and technical material, and building upon previously studied literature;

· reading, responding to, and discussing literature and fine arts that represent points of view from places, people, and events that are familiar and unfamiliar;

· distinguishing the elements that characterize and define a literary "classic";

· comparing the diverse voices of our national experience as they read a variety of United States literature;

· using literary terminology accurately, including setting, character, conflict, plot, resolution, theme, foreshadowing, and figurative language;

· using new vocabulary from literature in other contexts;

· analyzing events or actions in a reading selection and reflecting on these events or actions in writing and speaking; and

· continuing to develop skills as an effective audience member or performer.

GRADES 9-12

As students in grades 9-12 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· reading, viewing, listening, responding to, and discussing novels, poetry, short stories, nonfiction, content area and technical material, plays, essays, speeches, and fine arts;

· using literary terminology accurately, such as theme, mood, diction, idiom, perspective, style, and point of view in oral and written discussions of literature;

· identifying recurrent themes in United States and world literature;

· understanding the common themes in the literature of the United States and in relationship to world literature;

· developing and supporting a thesis about the craft and significance of particular works of literature, both classic and contemporary, including a variety of ethnic writers; and

· refining skills as an effective audience member or performer.

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STANDARD 7: Students use appropriate technologies to extend comprehension and communication skills in reading, writing, speaking, listening and viewing.

In order to meet this standard, a student will

7.1 use appropriate technologies to increase literacy through a variety of formats (for example, textual, graphic, audio, video, electronic, multimedia);

7.2 use appropriate technologies to access, process, and communicate information for a variety of purposes; and

7.3 demonstrate problem solving skills through the use of appropriate technologies.

Rationale. The wide variety of technologies available today enables us to access more information at a faster rate than has previously been possible. To be literate in today's world, students must be able to determine information needs and to utilize skills and appropriate technologies.

However, technology goes beyond the acquisition of information. Various types of technologies allow us to improve the manner in which we disseminate information. In both the acquisition and dissemination of information, appropriate technologies are used as tools to extend and enhance student literacy.

GRADES K-4

In grades K-4, what students know and are able to do includes

· using appropriate technologies to refine language skills and support the writing process, including prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing;

· using appropriate technologies to produce a quality product; and

· communicating information by using a form of multimedia technology.

GRADES 5-8

As students in grades 5-8 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· using appropriate technologies to support the writing process;

· using appropriate technologies to access and evaluate information about literary works;

· accessing facts, images, and text from a variety of electronic reference sources (electronic database, content-specific electronic references, electronic networkboth locally and globally); and

· using multimedia technologies to gather material to be used in the production of written, spoken, or visual presentations.

GRADES 9-12

As students in grades 9-12 extend their knowledge, what they know and are able to do includes

· using appropriate technologies to support the writing process;

· using appropriate technologies to access, process, manipulate, and store information;

· using appropriate technologies to enhance the quality of a presentation;

· enhancing the comprehension of literature by experiencing a literary or dramatic work through media other than written text (for example, audio recording, videotape, filmed dramatic presentation); and

· using technology to create real-world reading, writing, and oral products.

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Cianciolo, Patricia. Picture Books for Children. 3rd edition. Chicago: American Library Association, 1990.

Criscoe, Betty L. Award-Winning Books for Children and Young Adults: An Annual Guide. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1990.

Estell, Douglas, Michele L. Satchwell, and Patricia S. Wright. Reading Lists for College-Bound Students. New York: Prentice Hall, 1993.

Friedbert, Joan Brest, June B. Mullins, and Adelaide Weir Sukiennik. Portraying the Disabled: A Guide to Juvenile Non-Fiction. New York: Bowker, 1991.

Fry, Edward Bernard, Jacqueline E. Kress, and Dona Lee Fountoukidis. The Reading Teacher's Book of Lists. 3rd edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993.

Gillespie, John T., and Corinne J. Naden, eds. Best Books for Children: Preschool through Grade 6. 4th edition. New York: Bowker, 1990.

Gillespie, John T., ed. Best Books for Junior High Readers. New Providence, NJ: Bowker, 1991.

Gillespie, John Thomas, ed. Best Books for Senior High Readers. New Providence, NJ: Bowker, 1991.

Hirsch, E. D. Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987.

Horn Book Guide to Children's and Young Adult Books, The. Boston: The Horn Book. Published twice yearly.

Kennedy, Day Ann, et al. Science and Technology in Fact and Fiction: A Guide to Children's Books. New York: Bowker, 1990.

Kobrin, Beverly. Eyeopeners! How to Choose and Use Children's Books about Real People, Places, and Things. New York: Penguin, 1988.

Kruse, Ginny Moore, Kathleen T. Horning, Merri V. Lindgren and Katherine Odahowski. Multicultural Literature for Children and Young Adults: A Selected Listing of Books, 1980-1990, by and about People of Color. 3rd edition. Madison, WI: Cooperative Children's Book Center, University of Wisconsin at Madison: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1991.

Lipson, Eden Ross. The New York Times Parent's Guide to the Best Books for Children. Rev. edition. New York: Times Books, 1991.

Miller Lachmann, Lyn. Our Family, Our Friends, Our World: An Annotated Guide to Significant Multicultural Books for Children and Teenagers. New Providence, NJ: Bowker, 1992.

Minneapolis Public Library, Children's Services Dept. Rainbow Collection: Multicultural Children's Books. 2nd edition. Minneapolis: The Library, 1992.

Nilsen, Alleen Pace, ed., and the Committee on the Junior High and Middle School Booklist of the National Council of Teachers of English. Your Reading: A Booklist for Junior High and Middle School Students. 8th edition. Urbana, IL: NCTE, 1991.

Wilson, George, and Joyce Moss. Books for Children to Read Alone: A Guide for Parents and Librarians. New York: Bowker, 1988.

Wilson, George, and Joyce Moss. Tried and True: 500 Nonfiction Books Children Want to Read. New York: Bowker, 1992.

Wurth, Shirley, ed., and the Committee on the Senior High School Booklist of the National Council of Teachers of English. 11th edition. Books for You: A Booklist for Senior High Students. Urbana, IL: NCTE, 1992.

Available from American Library Association, 50 E. Huron, Chicago, IL 60611: Notable Books for Children (pamphlet); Best Books for Young Adults (pamphlet); Recommended Books for the Young Adult Reader (pamphlet).

Available from Children's Book Council, 568 Broadway, Suite 404, New York, NY 10012: Annual Book List.

Appropriate technology creates a condition that will help a student meet the expectations of a standard. For example, a computer or word processor can provide valuable support to a student's progression through the writing standards. Scientific and graphing calculators provide a valuable tool to many areas of math and scientific inquiry. The power of networks such as the Internet support research communication in all areas of the curriculum.

Colloquial language is characterized by a conversational tone, the use of first and second person pronouns, and informal language used in everyday conversation but not in formal writing and speaking.

Conventional grammar is a widely used and accepted style of speaking and writing. It is often used in less formal situations, particularly in conversation or when writing personal letters or notes to friends or family.

Correct refers to conforming to the recognized convention.

Craft refers to the artistry, i.e., skills and proficiencies of writing, speaking, listening, and viewing.

Dialect is language used in particular locales or by specific ethnic groups.

Fine arts is a general term for any works that provide for creative expression and aesthetic enjoyment. (From The Facts on File Dictionary of Education, 1988.)

Formal grammar is the language that is used for serious speaking occasions and most writing. It is the words, expressions, grammar, and usage found in formal essays, scholarly writing, and speeches. Formal English uses extensive vocabulary, few contractions, and almost no slang. Formal English is used for most school work, personal interviews, and letters for college or employment. Formal English helps to insure that a message is understood and received with respect. (Adapted from Houghton-Mifflin English Level 12, 1990.)

Formal logic is the clear and organized thinking that leads to a reasonable conclusion.

Full range of strategies refers to a variety of techniques and skills used before, during, and after reading to comprehend text.

Idiomatic language refers to expressions that have meanings that cannot be understood in isolation. It is a way of speaking and writing that is particular to a language.

Legible is distinct, clear, able to be read.

Literacy. "...Being literate in contemporary society means being active, critical, and creative users of print and spoken language as well as the visual language of film and television, commercial and political advertising, photography, and more. It also means being able to use technologies to gather information and communicate with others" (International Reading Association, 1995). Based on this expanded definition of literacy, the Reading/Writing standards address not only reading and writing, but also speaking, listening, viewing and visually representing. P. Freire (1970) states, and we agree, that literacy is "a strategy of liberation [that] teaches people to read not only the word but also the world."

Pragmatic use of language is the ability to use the appropriate level (formal, conventional, colloquial, idiomatic) of language for any given situation.

Prior knowledge refers to personal understanding acquired through one's life experiences.

Publish refers to producing or presenting a work for an audience. It may take many forms, such as reading, mailing, performing, printing, submitting, binding, and displaying.

Storing information refers to gathering facts and data which can be set aside, reserved, and saved for future use.

Skills are abilities acquired by observation, study, or experiences basic to the mastery of schoolwork or other activities.

Synthesize refers to combining separate elements in new ways to form a logical and understandable whole. (Houghton-Mifflin English, Level 10, 1990.)

Transformational generative grammar is a theory of syntactic construction which postulates that humans learn linguistic constructions by manipulating language. It is descriptive of how language is put together in the real world and helps students understand the logic of English. The pure theorist associated with these ideas is Noam Chomsky. Practical work in classrooms has been done by Strong and Christiansen.

Viewing means examining, observing, surveying, seeing, and inspecting.

Workplace competencies refer to the skills that should be taught from kindergarten through grade 12 to enable graduates to perform effectively in the workplace, as established by the Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. The Commission was comprised of representatives from education, business, unions, and government and was charged to examine changes in the world of work and the implications of those changes for learning.